"A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1..."
Understanding the structure and function of carbohydrates in biological systems.
Introduction to Carbohydrates: An overview of carbohydrates, their biological importance, and basic definitions.
Classification of Carbohydrates: Classification of carbohydrates based on their chemical and physical properties like the number of carbon atoms, the stereochemistry of the molecule, etc.
Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are simple sugars with a basic formula of (CH2O)n, which are the building blocks of complex carbohydrates. They are classified based on the number of carbon atoms, and their stereochemistry.
Glycosidic Bond: The glycosidic bond is a covalent bond that connects monosaccharides to form larger carbohydrates.
Disaccharides: Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides, and are known for their sweet taste (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose).
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are the most abundant and functionally diverse of the carbohydrates.
Starch: Starch is a polysaccharide commonly found in plants, made up of glucose units linked together by alpha glycosidic bonds.
Cellulose: Cellulose is a fibrous polysaccharide that forms the cell walls of plants, consisting of long chains of glucose linked by beta glycosidic bonds.
Chitin: Chitin is a polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans, insects, and other arthropods.
Glycosylation: Glycosylation is the process of covalently attaching carbohydrates to proteins or lipids, which is important in many biological processes like cell signaling and recognition.
Carbohydrate Metabolism: Carbohydrate metabolism refers to the biochemical reactions responsible for the synthesis and breakdown of carbohydrates in living organisms.
Carbohydrate Analysis: Different techniques are available to analyze carbohydrates, such as HPLC, GC, NMR spectroscopy, Mass Spectrometry, and X-ray diffraction.
Carbohydrates in Nutrition: Carbohydrates provide energy for the human body, and their intake should be balanced to maintain a healthy diet. The types of carbohydrates, such as simple and complex, also affect overall health.
Carbohydrates in Industry: Many carbohydrate-based products, such as textiles, paper, and fuel additives, are used in the industry.
Carbohydrate-Derived Materials: Carbohydrate-derived materials such as chitosan and cellulose are used to create biodegradable materials for medical applications.
Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of carbohydrates, containing only a single sugar unit. They are the building blocks for more complex carbohydrates. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Disaccharides: These are made up of two monosaccharides joined together through a glycosidic bond. Examples include lactose (glucose + galactose), sucrose (glucose + fructose), and maltose (glucose + glucose).
Polysaccharides: These are complex carbohydrates consisting of long chains of monosaccharides linked together. They are used for energy storage and structural support. Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
Oligosaccharides: These are carbohydrates made up of 3-10 monosaccharides linked together. They are often found in foods like beans and legumes.
Glycans: These are complex carbohydrates that are typically attached to proteins or lipids. They play a key role in cell signaling and communication.
Cyclodextrins: These are cyclic oligosaccharides made up of 6-8 glucose units. They are often used as food additives and in drug delivery.
Aldonic Acids: These are monosaccharides that have been oxidized to form a carboxylic acid group. They are often found in oxidized food products.
Ketonic Acids: These are monosaccharides that have been oxidized to form a ketone group. They are found in certain fruits and vegetables.
Deoxy Sugars: These are monosaccharides that have a hydroxyl group replaced with a hydrogen atom. They are found in DNA and some antibiotics.
Sugar Alcohols: These are carbohydrates that have been partially reduced to form an alcohol group. Examples include xylitol, sorbitol, and erythritol.
"However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise stoichiometric definition (e.g., uronic acids, deoxy-sugars such as fucose)..."
"The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide..."
"The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides."
"Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars."
"While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose..."
"Polysaccharides serve as an energy store (e.g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g. cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods)."
"The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA."
"Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development."
"Carbohydrates are central to nutrition and are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods."
"Starch is a polysaccharide and is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta."
"Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables."
"Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber. Although it is not digestible by humans, cellulose and insoluble dietary fiber generally help maintain a healthy digestive system by facilitating bowel movements."
"Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include resistant starch and inulin, which feed some bacteria in the microbiota of the large intestine, and are metabolized by these bacteria to yield short-chain fatty acids." Note: I've provided 14 study questions and their corresponding quotes from the paragraph. You can add additional questions or select specific sections from the paragraph to create a total of 20 study questions.