"In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles."
Introduction to elementary particles such as leptons, quarks, and gauge bosons.
Standard Model: The standard model is a theoretical framework that describes how the fundamental particles interact with each other.
Elementary Particles: Elementary particles are the building blocks of the universe. There are two types of elementary particles: fermions and bosons.
Fermions: Fermions are particles that obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle. This principle states that no two fermions can be in the same quantum state.
Bosons: Bosons are particles that do not obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle. They can occupy the same quantum state.
Quarks: Quarks are elementary particles that make up the protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei.
Leptons: Leptons are elementary particles with no strong interaction. They include the electrons and neutrinos.
W and Z bosons: The W and Z bosons are responsible for weak interactions, which are involved in radioactive decay and nuclear fusion.
Photons: Photons are the particles that make up light.
Higgs boson: The Higgs boson is a particle that is responsible for giving other particles mass.
Dark matter: Dark matter is a type of matter that does not interact with light but has gravitational effects on galaxies.
Dark energy: Dark energy is a mysterious form of energy that is responsible for the accelerated expansion of the universe.
Quantum Mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of particles on a very small scale.
String Theory: String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to unify all the fundamental forces of nature.
Grand Unified Theory (GUT): GUT is a theoretical framework that attempts to unify the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces in a single model.
Supersymmetry: Supersymmetry is a theoretical framework that predicts the existence of a partner particle for every particle in the standard model.
Particle Accelerators: Particle accelerators are devices used to accelerate particles to very high speeds and energies.
Neutrinos: Neutrinos are elementary particles that have no electric charge and interact very weakly with matter.
Electromagnetic waves: Electromagnetic waves are waves of energy that are associated with electric and magnetic fields.
Cosmic Rays: Cosmic rays are high-energy particles that originate from outer space.
Particle Detectors: Particle detectors are devices designed to detect and measure the properties of elementary particles.
Quarks: Quarks are elementary particles that make up the protons and neutrons found in atoms. Quarks come in six different types, or "flavors," that include up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.
Leptons: Leptons are a family of elementary particles that do not interact with the strong force. They include the electron, muon, and tau particles, along with their associated neutrinos.
Bosons: Bosons are elementary particles that carry forces between other particles. They include the photon, W, Z, and gluon particles, along with the theoretical Higgs boson.
Higgs boson: The Higgs boson is a theoretical elementary particle that gives all other particles mass.
Graviton: The graviton is a theoretical elementary particle that is thought to carry the force of gravity.
Photino: The photino is a hypothetical supersymmetric particle that is the supersymmetric partner of the photon.
Axion: The axion is a hypothetical particle that is thought to solve the strong CP problem in particle physics.
Neutralino: The neutralino is a supersymmetric particle that is the supersymmetric partner of the Z boson.
Glueball: The glueball is a hypothetical particle that is thought to be composed entirely of gluons.
Sterile neutrino: The sterile neutrino is a hypothetical particle that interacts only via gravity and does not interact with any of the other fundamental forces.
"The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons."
"The fermions and bosons are known to have 48 and 13 variations, respectively."
"Among the 61 elementary particles embraced by the Standard Model number electrons and other leptons, quarks, and the fundamental bosons."
"Subatomic particles such as protons or neutrons, which contain two or more elementary particles, are known as composite particles."
"Ordinary matter is composed of atoms, themselves once thought to be indivisible elementary particles."
"The name atom comes from the Ancient Greek word ἄτομος (atomos) which means indivisible or uncuttable."
"Albert Einstein published his paper on Brownian motion, putting to rest theories that had regarded molecules as mathematical illusions and asserted that matter was ultimately composed of various concentrations of energy."
"Subatomic constituents of the atom were first identified toward the end of the 19th century, beginning with the electron, followed by the proton in 1919, the photon in the 1920s, and the neutron in 1932."
"By that time the advent of quantum mechanics had radically altered the definition of a 'particle' by putting forward an understanding in which they carried out a simultaneous existence as matter waves."
"Many theoretical elaborations upon, and beyond, the Standard Model have been made since its codification in the 1970s."
"These include notions of supersymmetry, which double the number of elementary particles by hypothesizing that each known particle associates with a 'shadow' partner far more massive."
"However, like an additional elementary boson mediating gravitation, such superpartners remain undiscovered as of 2023."
"Despite the theories about atoms that had existed for thousands of years, the factual existence of atoms remained controversial until 1905."
"Theories that had regarded molecules as mathematical illusions."
"The factual existence of atoms remained controversial until 1905. In that year Albert Einstein published his paper on Brownian motion."
"By that time the advent of quantum mechanics radically altered the definition of a 'particle' by putting forward an understanding in which they carried out a simultaneous existence as matter waves."
"Among the 61 elementary particles embraced by the Standard Model..."
"Among the 61 elementary particles embraced by the Standard Model number electrons and other leptons, quarks, and the fundamental bosons."
"However, like an additional elementary boson mediating gravitation, such superpartners remain undiscovered as of 2023."