"A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to very high speeds and energies, and to contain them in well-defined beams."
Devices used to accelerate charged particles to high speeds, allowing their behavior to be studied.
Particle physics: The study of the fundamental subatomic particles that make up matter and the interactions between them.
Electromagnetism: The study of the properties and behavior of electric and magnetic fields and their interactions with matter.
Atomic physics: The study of the structure and behavior of atoms and their constituent particles.
Quantum mechanics: The study of the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic level.
Plasma physics: The study of the behavior of high-temperature, ionized gases with long-range electrodynamic interactions.
Accelerator technology: The design and implementation of machines that accelerate particles to high energies.
Detector technology: The design and implementation of devices that can detect and measure charged particles and other forms of radiation.
High-energy physics detectors: The design and implementation of detectors specifically tailored for use in high-energy physics experiments.
Scattering and diffraction: The study of the interaction of waves and particles with matter, including the scattering and diffraction of particles in high-energy physics experiments.
Nuclear physics: The study of the behavior and properties of atomic nuclei and the interactions between them.
Relativity: The study of the fundamental principles underlying the behavior of matter and energy at high speeds and in strong gravitational fields.
Astrophysics: The study of the properties and behavior of celestial objects, including stars, galaxies, and the universe as a whole.
High-energy astrophysics: Which studies phenomena that emit extremely high-energy particles or radiation, like black holes or gamma-ray bursts.
Particle accelerators: The fundamentals, the technological trends and limitations of the currently operating machines, and the frontier of possible forthcoming machines.
Beam dynamics: The study of the motion of charged particles in a magnetic field, including how to focus the beams and reduce their emittance.
Radiation safety: This topic is focused on the risks of radiation exposure and what steps one can take to mitigate those risks.
Control systems: The design and implementation of control systems that govern the operation of large accelerators.
Thermal engineering: The study of how to manage the heat generated by high-energy physics experiments and accelerator systems.
Superconductivity: A phenomenon where certain materials can conduct electricity without resistance, which can be useful for creating powerful magnets that are integral to accelerating particles.
Cryogenics: The study of the behavior of materials at very low temperatures and the techniques used to achieve and maintain those temperatures, which is important in high-energy physics experiments that involve superconducting magnets.
Vacuum technology: The study of how to create and maintain a vacuum in experimental areas, which is essential to reduce the amount of unwanted particles that might otherwise interfere with the experiment.
Data analysis: The techniques used to analyze the large quantities of data generated by high-energy physics experiments.
Particle identification: Techniques used to distinguish between different particles in high-energy physics experiments.
Photon detection: The design and implementation of detectors that can detect high-energy photons, such as those produced in gamma-ray astronomy or by synchrotron radiation.
Neutrino physics: The study of the properties and behavior of neutrinos, which are very low-mass particles that interact very weakly with matter.
Linear accelerator (linac): Linacs produce particle beams by accelerating particles in a linear path. They are the most common type of accelerator.
Cyclotron: A cyclotron uses a magnetic field to accelerate charged particles in a circular path.
Synchrotron: A synchrotron is a type of particle accelerator that uses magnets to bend and focus the particle beam in a circular path.
Betatron: A betatron uses a magnetic field to accelerate charged particles in a circular path.
Storage ring: A storage ring is a circular accelerator that stores beams of charged particles and allows for repeated measurements.
Free electron laser (FEL): FELs are particle accelerators that produce high-power beams of intense light.
Linear Coherent Light Source (LCLS): LCLS is an x-ray free-electron laser that produces extremely bright and short pulses of light.
Electron-positron colliders: Electron-positron colliders are particle accelerators that collide beams of electrons and positrons.
Proton therapy accelerators: Proton therapy accelerators are used in cancer treatment to target tumors with proton beams.
Muon accelerators: Muon accelerators accelerate muons, unstable particles similar to electrons, for use in particle physics research.
Neutron spallation sources: Neutron spallation sources accelerate protons to high energies and use them to produce neutrons for use in neutron scattering experiments.
Electrostatic accelerators: Electrostatic accelerators accelerate charged particles using electric fields.
Tesla coil: A Tesla coil is a type of high voltage transformer used for generating high-frequency alternating current.
Van de Graaff generator: A Van de Graaff generator is a type of electrostatic generator that uses a high voltage charge to create large static electricity on a metal sphere.
Cockcroft-Walton accelerator: The Cockcroft-Walton accelerator is a high-voltage generator that uses capacitors and diodes to accelerate charged particles.
"The largest accelerator currently active is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, operated by CERN."
"It is a collider accelerator, which can accelerate two beams of protons to an energy of 6.5 TeV and cause them to collide head-on, creating center-of-mass energies of 13 TeV."
"Other powerful accelerators are RHIC at Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York and, formerly, the Tevatron at Fermilab, Batavia, Illinois."
"Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, ion implanters for the manufacture of semiconductors, and accelerator mass spectrometers for measurements of rare isotopes such as radiocarbon."
"There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world."
"There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators."
"Electrostatic particle accelerators use static electric fields to accelerate particles."
"The most common types are the Cockcroft–Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator."
"The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating voltage, which is limited by electrical breakdown."
"Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators use changing electromagnetic fields (either magnetic induction or oscillating radio frequency fields) to accelerate particles."
"Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field."
"Rolf Widerøe, Gustav Ising, Leó Szilárd, Max Steenbeck, and Ernest Lawrence are considered pioneers of this field."
"Because the target of the particle beams of early accelerators was usually the atoms of a piece of matter, with the goal being to create collisions with their nuclei in order to investigate nuclear structure."
"Accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century."
"The term 'atom smashers' persists despite the fact that many modern accelerators create collisions between two subatomic particles, rather than a particle and an atomic nucleus."