"The 13th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition of 'cryogenics' and 'cryogenic' by accepting a threshold of 120 K (or –153 °C) to distinguish these terms from conventional refrigeration."
Explores the behavior of materials at extremely low temperatures, often close to absolute zero.
Thermodynamics: The study of the relationships between heat, work, temperature, and energy in systems.
Statistical mechanics: The application of statistical methods to explain the behavior of large collections of particles or atoms.
Quantum mechanics: The branch of physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic level.
Superconductivity: The phenomenon of zero electrical resistance and perfect diamagnetism in certain materials at low temperatures.
Magnetism: The property of certain materials to attract or repel other materials by virtue of their magnetic field.
Phase transitions: The transformation of matter from one state or phase to another, such as from solid to liquid, liquid to gas, etc.
Bose-Einstein condensation: A state of matter in which a large number of bosons (particles with integer spin) occupy the same quantum state.
Fermi-Dirac statistics: A distribution of particles that obey quantum statistics, such as electrons or other fermions.
Optical spectroscopy: The study of the interactions between light and matter, often used to understand the quantum properties of materials.
Low-temperature electronics: The design and fabrication of electronic devices that operate at extremely low temperatures, often in the millikelvin regime.
Cryogenics: The science of producing and using low temperatures, typically below -150°C, for technological purposes.
Topological phases of matter: A novel class of materials that exhibit exotic properties, such as robust edge states that are immune to disorder.
Spintronics: The use of the spin of electrons for information processing and storage, rather than their charge.
Quantum dots: Tiny dots of semiconductor materials that can confine electrons, leading to discrete energy levels and new electronic properties.
Nanomaterials: Materials with at least one dimension less than 100 nm, often exhibiting unique properties due to their small size.
Superconductivity: Study of the phenomenon of zero resistance in certain materials at very low temperatures.
Magnetism: Study of the behavior of magnetic materials at low temperatures, such as ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and superparamagnetic materials.
Phase transitions: Study of changes in the physical properties of materials as a result of changes in temperature, pressure, or other external factors.
Transport phenomena: Study of the behavior of electrons, ions, and other particles in materials at low temperatures, including electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion.
Thermodynamics: Study of the relationships between energy, work, and heat in materials at low temperatures.
Quantum fluids: Study of the behavior of superfluids, such as helium-4 and helium-3, and other quantum mechanical systems at very low temperatures.
Quantum solids: Study of the behavior of materials that exhibit quantum mechanical effects, such as Bose-Einstein condensates and quasicrystals.
Nanoscience: Study of the behavior of materials at the nanoscale, including quantum dots, nanoparticles, and nanotubes.
Biophysics: Study of the physical properties of biological systems, including proteins, DNA, and membranes, at very low temperatures.
Astrophysics: Study of the behavior of matter under extreme conditions, such as the interior of stars and the early universe, where low-temperature physics plays a critical role.
"This is a logical dividing line since the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases... lie below 120 K, while the Freon refrigerants, hydrocarbons, and other common refrigerants have boiling points above 120 K."
"The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology considers the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below -153 °C (120 K; -243.4 Fahrenheit)."
"The discovery of superconducting materials with critical temperatures significantly above the boiling point of nitrogen has provided new interest in reliable, low-cost methods of producing high-temperature cryogenic refrigeration."
"The term 'high temperature cryogenic' describes temperatures ranging from above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, −195.79 °C (77.36 K; −320.42 °F), up to −50 °C (223 K; −58 °F)."
"Cryogenicists use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scale, both of which measure from absolute zero, rather than more usual scales such as Celsius or Fahrenheit."
"The 13th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition..."
"The normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases... lie below 120 K..."
"The so-called permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air)..."
"The Freon refrigerants, hydrocarbons, and other common refrigerants have boiling points above 120 K."
"The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology considers the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below -153 °C..."
"The discovery of superconducting materials with critical temperatures significantly above the boiling point of nitrogen has provided new interest..."
"The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is −195.79 °C (77.36 K; −320.42 °F)."
"High temperature cryogenic" includes temperatures up to −50 °C (223 K; −58 °F)."
"Cryogenicists use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scale..."
"Celsius measures from the freezing point of water at sea level."
"Fahrenheit measures from the freezing point of a particular brine solution at sea level."
"The 13th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington DC in 1971)..."
"The range of high-temperature cryogenic includes temperatures above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen..."
"Temperatures below -153 °C (or 120 K) fall within the field of cryogenics."