"Facilities and services such as housing, healthcare, education, employment, and transportation have been systematically separated in the United States on racial grounds."
The historical and ongoing patterns of racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas have had a significant impact on the social, economic, and political landscape of cities and towns.
Redlining: The practice of denying access to services or discriminating against individuals based on their race or ethnicity.
White flight: The phenomenon of white residents leaving urban areas in large numbers when African-American and other minority populations began to increase.
Neighborhoods: Understanding the development and historic patterns of different neighborhoods in urban areas.
Housing discrimination: The practice of denying housing and property ownership to certain races and ethnicities, typically through redlining and other discriminatory policies.
Gentrification: The process of renovating and improving a neighborhood or area resulting in an influx of more affluent residents who often displace low-income and minority residents.
Public housing: The history and evolution of public housing and its effects on racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas.
School segregation: The history and present state of public school segregation and its effects on urban communities.
Employment discrimination: How employment discrimination has contributed to racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas by limiting employment opportunities for certain groups.
Transit policy: The development and impact of transportation policies on urban segregation and access to resources for different communities.
Racial violence: The role of violence and intimidation in creating and maintaining racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas.
Environmental justice: How environmental hazards and pollution disproportionately impact communities of color in urban areas.
Community organizing: The role of grassroots organizing and activism in fighting for racial and ethnic equity in urban areas.
Economic disparities: The ways in which economic disparities contribute to and perpetuate racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas.
Urban planning: The history and policies of urban planning and their impact on racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas.
Immigration policy: The ways in which immigration policies have affected the racial and ethnic demographics of urban areas.
Civil rights movement: The role of the Civil Rights Movement in challenging racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas.
Health disparities: How racial and ethnic segregation in urban areas impacts access to healthcare and health outcomes for different communities.
Historical trauma: The lasting impact of historical trauma on communities of color in urban areas and its contribution to ongoing segregation.
Black Lives Matter movement: The contemporary movement focused on challenging systemic racism in urban areas and beyond.
Intersectionality: Understanding how race intersects with other identity markers, such as gender, sexuality, and socioeconomic status, in creating and perpetuating urban segregation.
"The term is mainly used in reference to the legally or socially enforced separation of African Americans from whites."
"The term is also used in reference to the separation of other ethnic minorities from majority and mainstream communities."
"While mainly referring to the physical separation and provision of separate facilities, it can also refer to other manifestations such as prohibitions against interracial marriage (enforced with anti-miscegenation laws), and the separation of roles within an institution."
"Notably, in the United States Armed Forces up until 1948, black units were typically separated from white units but were still led by white officers."
"In parts of the United States, especially in the South, signs were used to indicate where African Americans could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat."
"The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), so long as 'separate but equal' facilities were provided."
"The doctrine's applicability to public schools was unanimously overturned in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) by the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren."
"The Warren Court further ruled against racial segregation in several landmark cases including Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964), which helped bring an end to the Jim Crow laws."
"De jure segregation mandated the separation of races by law, and was the form imposed by slave codes before the Civil War and by Black Codes and Jim Crow laws following the war."
"De jure segregation was outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968."
"De facto segregation continues today in areas such as residential segregation and school segregation because of both contemporary behavior and the historical legacy of de jure segregation."