"the last stage of the prehistoric period and the first of the protohistoric periods"
A regional overview and study of the different Iron Age civilizations, such as the Celts, Etruscans, and Scythians.
Chronology of the Iron Age: Understanding the timeline of the Iron Age, including the beginning and end periods, and the various sub-periods, is essential for studying Iron Age civilizations.
Settlement patterns and urbanization: The growth of settlements and cities during the Iron Age and the various urbanization practices, including the development of infrastructure, roads, and trade routes.
Agriculture and food systems: The techniques used for agriculture, the various crops that were grown, and the impact of agriculture on the development of Iron Age civilizations.
Belief systems and religion: The role of religion in Iron Age civilisations, the deities worshipped, the establishment of temples, and religious practices.
Political systems and governance: The evolution of political systems during the Iron Age, including the establishment of kingdoms, the emergence of empires, and the impact of war.
Technology and innovation: The technology advancements made during the Iron Age, such as iron smelting, and its impact on agriculture, economy and warfare.
Daily life and social structures: The daily life of the people, their social structures, and the role of gender, language, and architecture in Iron Age civilizations.
Trade and commerce: The trade relationships among Iron Age civilizations, the commodities exchanged, and the development of a currency system.
Art and aesthetics: Archaeological findings of arts that include pottery, jewellery, and sculptures, its influence on society and development.
Language and communication: The development of written and oral languages, and the role of communication in facilitating cultural relations and conflict resolution.
Warfare and military tactics: The warfare tactics and strategies used by the various Iron Age empires, the advancement of warfare technology, and its effect on society.
Environmental factors: The impact of environmental factors such as climate, natural disasters, and the availability of resources on the development of Iron Age civilizations.
Legacy and continuity: The impact of Iron Age civilizations on contemporary societies, and how their legacies continue to shape modern cultures.
Ancient Israel: The Israelites were a prominent civilization during the Iron Age, known for their monotheistic religion and cultural practices.
Assyria: Assyria was a powerful empire that emerged in Mesopotamia during the Iron Age. The civilization was known for its advanced military tactics and administrative structure.
Phoenicia: The Phoenicians were a maritime civilization that dominated the Mediterranean during the Iron Age. They were known for their trade and commerce networks, and their contributions to the field of writing and language.
Greece: Greece was made up of several city-states during the Iron Age, each with their own unique culture and identity. The period saw significant advancements in art, philosophy, and science.
Celtic Europe: The Celts were a group of diverse tribes that existed across Europe during the Iron Age. They were known for their artistic skills and advanced metallurgy techniques.
China: China during the Iron Age was marked by the emergence of several powerful dynasties, including the Zhou and Qin. The civilization was known for its agricultural advancements, philosophies, and technological innovations.
"For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt end after conquest by the Romans"
"ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times"
"Iron working was introduced to Europe in the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus"
"spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years"
"The Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins around 500 BC... and finishes around 400 AD"
"In the late 11th century BC... the use of iron and iron-working technology became widespread concurrently in Europe and Asia"
"The start of the Iron Age is marked by new cultural groupings... Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greece collapsing... Urnfield culture had already given way to the Hallstatt culture"
"In north Italy the Villanovan culture is regarded as the start of Etruscan civilization"
"Like its successor La Tène culture, Hallstatt is regarded as Celtic"
"Roman Iron Age is a term used in the archaeology of Northern Europe (but not Britain)"
"The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements, and utensils"
"These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear"
"the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble Roman arms in some respects"
"in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art"