"Participant observation is one type of data collection method by practitioner-scholars typically used in qualitative research and ethnography."
A method of data collection where the researcher immerses themselves in the culture they are studying as an active participant.
Introduction to Participant Observation: This includes the definition of participant observation, its objectives, purpose and the importance of using it as a research methodology.
Fieldwork: Fieldwork involves conducting research on a particular group, culture or community by living with them and observing their behaviors, interactions and relationships.
Ethics in Ethnography: This topic includes the ethical considerations and limitations that guide the research process in ethnography.
Research Design and Planning: This involves developing a research plan, identifying research methods, participating in data collection, and documenting the activities during the research process.
Data Collection Methods: This includes the different methods used to collect data during participant observations such as observation, note-taking, interviews, and field notes.
Data Analysis Tools: The different tools used for analyzing ethnographic data include content analysis, coding techniques and discourse analysis.
Validity and Reliability in Ethnography: This topic covers the issues of internal and external validity and reliability of the research findings.
Reflexivity: This includes the importance of reflexivity in ethnography and how the researcher's presence can affect the study.
Theory Building: This includes how the data collected during ethnographic research can be used to develop or refine theories in different fields.
Writing and Presentation of Ethnographic Findings: This covers the process of writing up and presenting ethnographic findings, including the use of descriptive language, narrative structures and the significance of visuals.
Collaborative Research: This involves the development of collaborative relationships between researchers and research participants in the design and implementation of ethnographic research.
Multi-sited Ethnography: Multi-sited ethnography involves conducting fieldwork across different sites and locations.
Reflexive Autoethnography: This is a form of ethnography where the researcher is also a subject of the research, and the study focuses on the researcher's experiences and perspectives.
Participatory Action Research: This is an approach to research that involves collaboration with the community or participants, allowing them to participate in the research process.
Visual Ethnography: This involves the use of visual media such as photography, film and video to document and present ethnographic research.
Full Participant Observation: Researchers immerse themselves entirely in the life and culture of the community they are studying. They actively participate in all activities, events, and rituals.
Partial Participant Observation: Researchers interact with participants as a member of the community, but they do not immerse themselves fully in the community. They may attend specific events, observe certain behaviors, and interact with participants as needed.
Observer as Participant: The researcher plays the role of an observer, but also interacts with participants when necessary to gain insight into the community.
Participant as Observer: Researchers play an active role in the community they are studying, but also observe the community from an outsider's perspective.
Complete Observer: Researchers observe the community from an outsider's perspective without participating in any of the community's events or activities.
Covert Observation: Researchers study the community without the participants being aware that they are being studied.
Overt Observation: Participants are aware of researchers' presence, and they are informed about the research project.
Single-Site Observation: Researchers study one specific community or group in detail.
Multi-Site Observation: Researchers study multiple communities or groups to compare and contrast their differences.
Focus Group Observation: Researchers observe and record the discussions that take place in a group setting, with a facilitator guiding the conversation towards a particular topic.
"This type of methodology is employed in many disciplines, particularly anthropology, sociology, communication studies, human geography, and social psychology."
"The concept 'participant observation' was first coined in 1924 by Eduard C. Lindeman, an American pioneer in adult education."
"Eduard C. Lindeman was influenced by John Dewey and Danish educator-philosopher N.F.S.Grundtvig."
"Social Discovery: An Approach to the Study of Functional Groups."
"The method originated earlier and was applied in the field research linked to European and American voyages of scientific exploration."
"Joseph Marie, baron de Gérando already affirming that: 'The first way to get to know the Indians is to become like one of them; and it is by learning their language that we will become their fellow citizens.'"
"The method would be popularized by Bronisław Malinowski and his students in Britain."
"The students of Franz Boas in the United States" popularized the method.
"The students of the Chicago school of sociology" contributed to the popularity of participant observation in urban research.