"Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates which have been slowly moving since about 3.4 billion years ago."
The relationship between plate tectonics and the formation of mountain ranges such as the Himalayas and the Rockies.
Continental drift: The theory that continents have moved over geologic time due to the movement of tectonic plates.
Tectonic plates: The massive, rigid slabs of rock that make up Earth's outer layer, and the movement of which causes continental drift.
Convergent boundaries: The areas where two tectonic plates move towards each other, creating mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
Divergent boundaries: The areas where two tectonic plates move away from each other, creating rift valleys and volcanic islands.
Transform boundaries: The areas where two tectonic plates slide past each other, creating earthquakes.
Subduction zones: The areas where one tectonic plate is forced under another plate, creating deep ocean trenches and volcanic arcs.
Mountain building: The process by which tectonic plates collide and create orogeny, resulting in the formation of mountains.
Volcanic activity: The process of magma rising and erupting on Earth's surface, often due to tectonic plate movements.
Earthquakes: The sudden shaking of Earth's surface caused by the movements of tectonic plates.
The Rock Cycle: The process of how rocks are made, broken down, and formed again over geologic time.
Geologic time scale: The timeline of Earth's history, divided into distinct periods marked by significant geologic events.
Geographical features: The physical features of the Earth's crust, such as mountain ranges, valleys, and plains, which are shaped by tectonic plate movements.
Seismology: The study of earthquakes and the seismic waves they produce, often used to map Earth's interior.
Paleomagnetism: The study of Earth's magnetic field and how it has changed over time, often used to track the movements of tectonic plates.
Geodynamics: The study of the physical processes that shape the Earth's crust, including plate tectonics, mountain building, and volcanic activity.
Geophysics: The study of the physical properties of Earth, such as its magnetic field, gravity, and seismic waves, often used to study plate tectonics and mountain building.
Convergent Plate Boundary: When two plates move towards each other, the boundary is called a convergent boundary. The process is called "subduction" when the denser plate sinks into the mantle beneath the less dense plate, causing earthquakes and volcanoes.
Divergent Plate Boundary: When two plates move away from each other, the boundary is called a divergent boundary. This process is accompanied by volcanic activity, earthquakes, and the creation of new oceanic crust.
Transform Plate Boundary: When two plates move past each other, this forms a transform boundary, and these boundaries are primarily associated with earthquakes as the plates grind against each other.
Collision Plate Boundary: When two plates carrying continental crusts converge, a collision boundary is formed. The greater intensity of earth deformation resulted in the eruption of the Himalayas, the world's highest mountain range.
Fold Mountains: Mountains formed by folding rocks, with the compression of tectonic plates forcing two sections of rock toward each other. Examples include the Rocky Mountains in North America and the Alps in Europe.
Fault-Block Mountains: When two plates move against each other, it creates vertical or near-vertical faults, causing one side of a mountain to move up and the other to move down. Examples include the Sierra Nevada in the western United States and the Harz Mountains in Germany.
Volcanic Mountains: Mountains that form from volcanic eruptions. Examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount St. Helens in the United States, and Mount Etna in Italy.
Dome Mountains: When cauldron-like depressions are uplifted and form mountains, this process creates dome mountains. Examples include the Black Hills in South Dakota, USA.
Plateau Mountains: Mountains formed in areas of high elevation with flat tops, called plateaus. Examples include the Andes Mountains in South America and the Tibetan Plateau in Asia.
"The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century."
"Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid-to-late 1960s."
"Earth's lithosphere is broken into seven or eight major plates."
"Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform."
"Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries."
"The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually."
"Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust."
"Along convergent plate boundaries, the process of subduction, or of one plate moving under another, carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the mantle."
"The lost surface is balanced by the formation of new oceanic crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading."
"This process of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle."
"Tectonic plates are able to move because Earth's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere."
"Plate movement is driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from spreading ridges due to variations in topography and density changes in the crust."
"At subduction zones, the relatively cold, dense oceanic crust sinks down into the mantle forming the downward convecting limb of a mantle cell. This is the strongest driver of the plates."
"The relative importance of other proposed factors such as active convection, upwelling and flow inside the mantle, and tidal drag of the moon, and their relationship to each other is still the subject of debate."