"A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. It forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. "
The physical processes involved in the formation, movement, and melting of glaciers.
Glacial topology: The study of glacial landforms such as moraines, eskers, and drumlins.
Ice sheet dynamics: The study of how ice sheets form, flow, and retreat.
Glacial hydrology: The study of meltwater, runoff, and hydrological processes in and around glaciers.
Glacial sedimentology: The study of sediment transport, deposition, and erosion by glaciers.
Glacial geomorphology: The study of the shape, form, and evolution of glacial landscapes.
Glacier mass balance: The study of the balance between snow accumulation and ice loss on a glacier.
Glacial climatology: The study of the impact of glaciers on climate and the response of glaciers to climate change.
Glacial geophysics: The study of the physical properties of glaciers, including acoustics, thermal properties, and electromagnetic properties.
Ice core studies: The study of ice cores as a record of past climate and environmental changes.
Glacier modeling: The development and testing of computer models of glacial dynamics.
Glacial ecology: The study of the ecology of glacial environments, including the organisms that inhabit them.
Glacial hazards: The study of the risks associated with glaciers, including ice falls, floods, and avalanches.
Remote sensing of glaciers: The use of satellites and other remote sensing techniques to study glaciers.
Glacial geodesy: The use of satellite and other techniques to measure the movement of glaciers.
Paleoglaciology: The study of past glaciation and its impact on the modern landscape.
Proglacial lakes: The study of the formation, evolution, and dynamics of lakes that form in front of glaciers.
Glacier retreat: The study of the retreat of glaciers and its impact on landscapes and communities.
Glacier mapping: The use of GIS and other techniques to map the spatial extent and distribution of glaciers.
Glacier Velocity: The speed at which the glacier moves from one place to another.
Ice Deformation: The internal motion of ice that causes the glacier to deform and flow.
Basal Sliding: When the ice at the bottom of the glacier melts and lubricates the rock below, the glacier slides along this base.
Creep: The slow, continuous movement of ice due to its own weight and internal stresses.
Calving: The breaking off of ice from the front of a glacier and forming an iceberg.
Glacier Surging: A sudden and dramatic increase in the velocity of a glacier.
Icequakes: Vibrations in the ice caused by the movement of the glacier.
Glacier Melt: The process by which the glacier melts due to rising temperatures.
Supraglacial Lakes and Streams: The accumulation of water on the surface of a glacier, which can cause increased melting and change the glacier's behavior.
Glacial Erosion: The process by which glaciers erode the landscape, including abrasion, plucking, and other mechanisms.
Glacial Deposition: The process by which glaciers deposit sediment, creating moraines, drumlins, and other landforms.
"Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water."
"On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets (also known as 'continental glaciers') in the polar regions."
"Glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude oceanic island countries such as New Zealand."
"Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea, and on Zard-Kuh in Iran."
"With more than 7,000 known glaciers, Pakistan has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions."
"Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface."
"Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km2 (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of Antarctica's 13.2 million km2 (5.1 million sq mi)."
"The average thickness of ice in Antarctica's ice sheets is 2,100 m (7,000 ft)."
"The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km3."
"Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater."
"Many glaciers from temperate, alpine, and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt."
"A glacier acquires distinguishing features, such as crevasses and seracs, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight."
"As it moves, a glacier abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as cirques, moraines, or fjords."
"A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue, as large quantities of water appear blue. This is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue."
"The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the created ice's density."
"Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g., precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change."
"Glacial mass changes are a major source of variations in sea level."
"However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater."
"Glacier meltwater is a water source that is especially important for plants, animals, and human uses when other sources may be scant."